Ancient Canaanite Religion and Civilization

May 22, 2023

The ancient Canaanite settlement known as Ugarit was a city destroyed around 1,200 BC and rediscovered in 1928, thanks to a Syrian plowman who accidentally opened a tomb. Ugarit is located on the north Syrian coast of the Mediterranean and was one of the major Canaanite city-states during the second millennium BC. During the excavations conducted at and near Ugarit since 1929, thousands of texts have been found. Most are tablets of baked clay and include diplomatic correspondence, legal records, and a long list of gods and sacrificial offerings. Most of the tablets are about the size of a large modern book, and many of these tablets tell stories. The gods and goddesses of Ugarit are major characters in these stories, and they are the focus of many other texts, especially ritual ones.

The head of the Ugaritic pantheon of gods was El, as his epithets “the King” and “the Father of Gods” indicate. El’s name is a common noun meaning “god.” Its precise etymology is uncertain: two major theories derive it from roots meaning “strong” or “first.” Compare, for example, the Arabic word “Allah,” which literally means “God” along with the epithets “ the Merciful” and “the Beneficent” used to describe Allah are strikingly close to the Ugaritic designations of El as “the Kind, the Compassionate.” And while El was the head of the pantheon, Baal was also a dominant Canaanite deity. There seems to be a sort of co-regency between El as the executive power and Baal as the military power in the cosmos. In addition to male deities, three goddesses appear regularly in religious texts. They are known as Astarte, Asherah, and Anat. Asherah is El’s consort and the mother of the gods. Anat is Baal’s sister and is closely identified with as a successful opponent of Sea, Death, and other destructive powers. Her fierce temper is directed against gods and mortals alike. With her thirst for violence and her macabre trappings – a necklace of human heads, a belt of human hands – Anat resembles the Hindu goddess Kali.

Until the discovery of Ugarit, the sources for the study of the religion of ancient Canaan were both sketchy and late. There were also dedicatory and funerary inscriptions of the Phoenicians and of their Punic cousins in western North Africa. But even when this literary evidence was synthesized with archaeological remains – the figurines and statues, the temples and shrines – it was impossible to reconstruct a coherent account of what the Canaanites believed. The Bible contains many direct references to Canaanite religious beliefs and practices. Now, with the discovery of Ugarit and its thousands of texts, we have an extensive and primary source for the study of Canaanite religion.

Returning to Ugaritic deities, we find trances of Anat, Asherah, and Astarte in the Bible. Anat is the least well attested, occurring only in the place names Beth-anath and Anathoth and in the personal name Shamgar Ben-Anath. In the Bible, most scholars detect the goddess Asherah in 2 Kings 21:7 and 23:4,6-7. In Biblical Hebrew the word asherah is also a common noun, meaning a sacred tree or pole used in the goddess’s wordhip; it was probably a fertility symbol. In this capacity, the asherah, arguably the symbol of the goddess by the same name, is implicitly associated with Yahweh, as the fertility god par excellence. The Bible prohibits this form of worship of Yahweh, for it is written: “You shall not set up an asherah of any wood next to the altar of Yahweh your God” (Deut. 16:21). Because of its disapproval of asherah, the Bible sometimes associates her name with the god considered to be the divine epitome of idolatry, Baal himself (1 Kgs. 18:19). Astate occures in extant Ugaritic sources, but little light is shed on her personality. She is called “the goddess” or “the abominations of the Sidonians” (1 Kgs 11:5).

As this brief overview has shown, Canaanite motifs permeate the Bible. Most significant is the fusion of Baal language and El language in the descriptions of Yahweh and His activity. For the more we learn of the cultural context in which the Israelites lived, the more the prophetic remark rings true: “…thus saith the Lord GOD unto Jerusalem; Thy birth and thy nativity is of the land of Canaan…” (Ezekiel 16:3).

 

References:

Coogan, M. & Smith, M. Stories from Ancient Canaan. (Louisville, KY: Westminister John Knox Press, 2012).

Constantine: Pagan or Christian?

May 22, 2023

The first three centuries of the Christian era were marred with persecutions and intolerance for the faithful followers of the Lord Jesus Christ. During this time the Roman Empire itself was going through changes. For in 285 AD Diocletian divided the Roman Empire in half, taking the eastern branch of the empire for himself and assumed the title of Augustus. In 303 Diocletian began to persecute Christians and ordered that all Christian churches be destroyed, as well as all Christian books and other texts. In 305 Diocletian stepped down as emperor, and Constantius (the father of Constantine) became Augustus along with Galerius, who ended the Diocletian persecution of Christians when he issued the Edict of Toleration in Serdica in the year 311 AD.

Shortly after Constantius assumed the title of Augustus, he led his army to the shores of Britain, in order to subdue the wiles of the island’s rough and rowdy natives. Unfortunately Constantius fell sick during his venture in Britain and ended up dying in Eboracum (modern-day York) in 306 AD. But at Constantius’ side was his son Constantine. Constantine has been described as a big and tall, impressive looking man. His father’s troops were impressed enough too, for they soon hailed Constantine as the successor to Constantius, and was also crowned the Augustus of the Western empire. Constantine emerged victorious in a series of civil wars against Emperors Maxentius and Licinius to become the sole ruler of both the Eastern and Western empire by 324 AD.

In 312, Constantine swept through Italy and came against Maxentius in Rome. Seeing that he would need more troops to overtake Maxentius, Constantine turned to God. However, being pagan at this time, Constantine did not know which god to pray to. Taking a leap of faith Constantine called on the god of the Christians. Then as he fervently prayed he saw the sign of the cross in the sky, above the sun, along with the inscription, “In Hoc Signo Vinces” meaning – In This Sign Conquer. Constantine was dumbstruck by this vision as was his entire army, for they also witnessed the miracle. That night before fighting Maxentius at the Battle of the Milivian Bridge, Constantine had a dream. In the dream he saw a cross in the heavens with the same inscription, “In this sign conquer.” Upon awaking from the dream, Constantine rose up and told his friends the sign that the god of the Christians had given him.

With the news of Constantine’s vision, the army rallied with enthusiasm knowing they were blessed by the favor of the god of the Christians. Constantine then ordered a Christian symbol to be painted on the shields of his soldiers. The next day Constantine and his troops marched into battle and won! Through the power of Constantine’s vision, and it’s fulfillment, the emperor became a Christian, as did his army, and in the near future, so would the entire Roman Empire. For in 313 AD Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which legalized Christianity and allowed freedom of worship for Roman subjects all throughout the empire. At this time however, Licinius was the Eastern emperor, but by 324 Constantine defeated him and took control over both the Eastern and Western branches of the empire. Constantine then founded the city of Constantinople over the site of what was once Byzantium.

During his reign, Constantine made strides in order to strengthen and secure his power throughout the empire. Constantine also continued to proclaim Christianity, and he even summoned Christian bishops and other clergy members in order to clear up doctrinal differences that were raging at the time. Ultimately Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea in 325 AD which confirmed the divine nature of Jesus Christ, birthed the construction of the Nicene Creed, and established the observance of the date of Easter. Constantine also reorganized the army, which helped him defeat the barbarian tribes of Europe such as the Visigoths and the Sarmatians.

Constantine would go on to give vast amounts of money to the churches of God, in order to build places of worship throughout the empire. He also gave a great deal of money to the poor and needy, to Christian and non-Christians alike. Although Constantine was benevolent and even though he legalized and promoted Christianity, the man himself was not yet baptized. However, soon after the Feast of Easter in 337, Constantine fell seriously ill. Seeking salvation, he became a catechumen, and was baptized by Eusebius of Nicomedia. Constantine died soon after on the day of Pentecost, the fiftieth day directly following the Feast of Pascha on 22 May 337 AD. Soon after he was buried in Constantinople at the Church of the Apostles.

From what has been stated it could be argued that Constantine was not a true believer due to him waiting until he was on his deathbed to accept Christ in baptism. However, other schools of thought teach that Constantine could have been preparing himself for baptism ever since his vision of the cross. Whether he was pagan or Christian, Constantine did pave the way for the establishment of the Church as a well organized body. Also through his edicts Christians were free to worship without the fear of persecution or death. By his closeness to Christian clergy the beginning of the Church’s Ecumenical Councils were also birthed. So to some Constantine may be thought of as just another pagan despot, but to the Greek Orthodox Church he is proclaimed as Saint Constantine the Great!

 

References:

Carroll, J. Constantine’s Sword. (New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2001).

Eusebius. Eusebius of Caesarea: Ecclesiastical History. (2010).

Norwich, J.J. A Short History of Byzantium. (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 1999).

Robinson, J.J. Dungeon, Fire & Sword. (Lanham, Maryland: The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group Inc., 2009).

Where on Earth is the Garden of Eden?

May 22, 2023

The story of Adam and Eve, and their brief but blessed life in the Garden of Eden, is a familiar tale known to most everyone living in the world today. Believer and atheist alike: both are well versed in this Biblical account of paradise, the serpent, and the forbidden fruit. But something that puzzles everyone, whether those possessed of an elementary understanding of the creation story, or the well versed Bible scholar, is the question of what happened to the Garden of Eden after Adam and Eve fell from grace? Was Eden a part of this earth, or was it in heaven? Could Eden be somewhere in the world today, but hidden from the eyes of sinful men? Or, has access to Eden now been grated to faithful souls who put their trust in the Lord Jesus Christ? The aim of this study will be to answer these questions as taken directly from the teachings of the Church Fathers, many of whom were granted visions of paradise themselves. So with a childlike faith, and the maturity of a discerning mind, let us now embark on a quest in search of the Garden of Eden.

As we venture off to discover the whereabouts of Eden, let us first examine the qualities of the garden, and by cross referencing Biblical language an accurate description of Eden may be found. For example, the English word “paradise,” which has come down to us over time, contains within it several different linguistic sources of origin. For instance, the French word “paradis” is taken from the Latin “paradisus” which is taken from the Greek “paradeisos” which in turn is taken from the ancient Persian word “paradaijah” meaning: walled garden. Knowing that Eden has walls suggests boundaries, which in turn tells us that the Garden of Eden may be finite in area and not infinite in space as is heaven. A clue pointing to Eden being of an enclosed territory is found in Genesis 3:24 where we see God placing Cherubims at the east of Eden in order to guard the way of the tree of life. Since Adam and Eve were banished from the garden and the fact that the eastern entrance was guarded, this informs us that Eden truly was a walled garden. This means that Eden was not in heaven, yet at the same time it possesses heavenly qualities. Let us now examine where Eden stands in God’s creation.

In the first chapter of the book of Genesis the story of creation is summed up, as we read how God created the entire universe in a period of six days. Now the Bible informs us that the Lord God created the grass, the herbs, and all fruit bearing trees on the Third Day (Genesis 1:11). However, the creation of the Garden of Eden is nowhere to be found within all 31 verses of Genesis chapter one. But in the second chapter of the book of Genesis, Eden is first mentioned where it is written that, “…the LORD God planted a garden eastwards in Eden…” (Genesis 2:8). This exclusion of the “planting” of the Garden of Eden in Genesis chapter one has led many to believe that Eden was created after the six days of creation. But by rightly dividing the word of truth, St. Ephraim the Syrian reveals to us that Eden (a place possessed of fruit bearing trees) must have also been created on the Third Day, along with the other plants and vegetation which the Lord God brought forth upon the face of the earth. So, now that we have come to an understanding of when Eden was created through the writings of St. Ephraim, let us lean on the holy insight of yet another Church Father to better comprehend the physical and spiritual properties of the Garden of Eden, and of how Eden and Earth simultaneously differ and are alike.

St. Gregory the Sinaite, who was blessed by God and deemed worthy of visiting the Garden of Eden, explains the relationship between the earth and Eden by relating the following: “Eden is a place in which there was planted by God every kind of fragrant plant. It is neither completely incorruptible, nor entirely corruptible. Placed between corruption and in-corruption, it is always both abundant in fruits and blossoming with flowers, both mature and immature. The mature trees and fruits are converted into fragrant earth which does not give off any odor or corruption, as do the trees of this world. This is from the abundance of the grace of sanctification which is constantly poured forth there.” So from this description of Eden, we see that the walled garden of paradise must have been located somewhere between heaven and earth, since the properties of the garden share the characteristics of both spiritual and physical creations. Going further, some Holy Fathers have stated that even before the fall of man the Garden of Eden was in an elevated place, resting slightly higher above the earth. The Fathers also teach us that after his fall, Adam was tormented over losing Paradise. The Fathers go on to say that for a certain period of time after his banishment from Eden, Adam could still see Paradise from where he was on the earth, which only added to Adam’s lament.

The Bible goes on to tell us of a river that went forth from Eden to water the garden, and from there it separated into four heads (Genesis 2:10). The Bible also names these four rivers. The first river is Pison, the second river is Gihon, the third river is Hiddekel, and the fourth river is Euphrates. These four rivers are believed to be the Tigris, Euphrates, Nile, Danube or possibly even the Ganges rivers. Since two of the four rivers of Eden (the Tigris and Euphrates) are located in Mesopotamia, it has led many to assume that the Garden of Eden must have been originally located somewhere within the arch of the Fertile Crescent: the cradle of ancient civilization. Now the fact that no traces of Paradise are to be found in these regions today, has been explained by some that the Garden of Eden must have been swept away by the Great Flood and that Eden’s current location lies somewhere buried at the bottom of the ocean. But this theory of Eden being destroyed by the Great Flood doesn’t hold water, because Eden is sacred and the Flood was sent to destroy wickedness not holiness. Also, the fact that Eden is nowhere to be found on earth tells us that this sacred garden must be protected by the Lord in a spiritual realm. Going further, after the sacrificial work Christ accomplished on earth, the Garden of Eden may now be in Heaven or could even be incorporated somehow into the New Jerusalem. Let us turn now and study the New Testament to better understand where exactly the Paradise of God could currently be located.

According to St. Luke’s Gospel, while Jesus was upon the cross, one of the two thieves who were crucified along with Christ asked the Lord to remember him in His Kingdom. Jesus then told the thief that on that very day would he be with Him in paradise (Luke 23:42,43). Now the Church teaches that before the resurrection of Jesus Christ, no human soul had access to heaven. But when Jesus descended into Hades, He pulled out of bondage all the righteous souls who had lived from the ages past, and thus led captivity captive and then ascended up on high (Ephesians 4:8). Now the fact that the thief went to paradise with Jesus, and considering how Christ also raised the spirits out of Hades and brought them to heaven, then it is evident that the Garden of Eden must now be inhabited by the Saints of God in heaven. A scripture which backs up the theory that Eden is now in heaven, is found in the book of Revelation where it explains how God will reward those who overcome the world by giving them to eat of the tree of life, which is in the midst of the paradise of God (Revelation 2:7). By continuing in Revelation are we introduced to quite an awesome vision: that of the new Jerusalem, which comes down out of heaven from God (Revelation 3:12). In addition to the new Jerusalem, Revelation also informs us that there will be a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth will pass away (Revelation 21:1). In the beginning the Garden of Eden possessed both physical and spiritual properties, and at the end of time both heaven and earth (spirit and matter) will be united and glorified. Through the incarnation of Christ, the Fathers teach that heaven begins in this life, and Jesus also preached that the kingdom of God is within us. So if we are ever going to find Paradise before we die, then maybe we can discover the Garden of Eden by looking into the depths of our very own heart.

 

References:

Orthodox Study Bible (Elk Grove, CA:St. Athanasius Academy of Orthodox Theology, 2008).

Rose, Fr. Seraphim. Genesis, Creation, and Early Man. (Platina, CA: St. Herman of Alska Brotherhood, 2011).

Zondervan. The Holy Bible, King James Version. (Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan, 2009).

Enoch’s Life: As Told From The Book of Jasher

May 22, 2023

“And Enoch lived sixty-five years and he begat Methuselah; and Enoch walked with God after having begot Methuselah, and he served the Lord, and despised the evil ways of men. And the soul of Enoch was wrapped up in the instruction of the Lord, in knowledge and in understanding; and he wisely retired from the sons of men, and secreted himself from them for many days. And it was at the expiration of many years, whilst he was serving the Lord, and praying before him in his house, that an angel of Lord called to him from heaven, and he said, Here am I. And he said, Rise, go forth from thy house and from the place where thou dost hide thyself, and appear to the sons of men, in order that thou may teach them the way in which they should go and the work which they must accomplish to enter in the ways of God. And the spirit of God was upon Enoch, and he taught all his men the wisdom of God and His ways, and the sons of men served the Lord all the days of Enoch, and they came to hear his wisdom. And he taught them wisdom and knowledge, and he placed before them statutes and judgments to do upon earth, and he made peace among them, and he taught them everlasting life, and dwelt with them some time teaching them all these things.”

“And at that time the sons of men were with Enoch, and Enoch was speaking to them, and they lifted up their eyes and the likeness of a great horse descended from heaven, and the horse paced in the air; and they told Enoch what they had seen, and Enoch said to them, On my account does this horse descend upon earth; the time is come when I must go from you and I shall no more be seen by you. And the horse descended at that time and stood before Enoch, and all the sons of men that were with Enoch saw him. And Enoch then again ordered a voice to be proclaimed, saying, Where is the man who delighteth to know the ways of the Lord his God, let him come this day to Enoch before he is taken from us. And all the sons of men assembled and came to Enoch that day; and all the kings of the earth with their princes and counselors remained with him that day; and Enoch then taught the sons of men wisdom and knowledge, and he gave them divine instruction; and he bade them serve the Lord and walk in His ways all the days of their lives, and he continued to make peace among them.”

“And it was after this that he rose up and rode upon the horse; and he went forth and all the sons of men went after him, about eight hundred thousand men; and they went with him one day’s journey. And the second day he said to them, Return home to your tents, why will you go? Perhaps you may die; and some of them went from him, and those that remained went with him six day’s journey; and Enoch said to them every day, Return to your tents, lest you may die; but they were not willing to return, and they went with him. And they urged so much to go with him, that he ceased speaking to them; and they went after him and would not return; and when the kings returned they caused a census to be taken, in order to know the number of remaining men that went with Enoch; and it was upon the seventh day that Enoch ascended into heaven in a whirlwind, with horses and chariots of fire.”

 

References:

Johnson, K. Ancient Book Of Jasher. (CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform: 2008).

The Veil of the Temple and the Flesh of Jesus

May 22, 2023

When Christ confessed He was the Messiah, the high priest tore his robe, and when Christ died on the cross, the veil of the temple tore from top to bottom. Is there a connection here? At first glance this comparison may seem irrelevant, but if we carefully search the scriptures more relevance is found concerning the veil of the temple and the flesh of Jesus.

According to the Epistle to the Hebrews, by the blood of Jesus are we granted entrance into the Holy of Holies, which in times past only the high priest could enter. By a new and living way are believers able to enter the most holy place, for Christ has consecrated for us a way through the veil, that is to say, his flesh. (Hebrews 10:19-20). So here we see scripture identifying the flesh of Jesus as the veil of the temple. In Old Testament times while under the law the high priest was the only one allowed into the Holy of Holies, but now in the age of grace and through the blood of Jesus are the faithful consecrated or anointed to enter into the most holy place, that is through the veil which is the flesh of Jesus.

The flesh of which the Word of God took from the blessed Virgin Mary would function as His veil, separating mankind from the glory of the Holy of Holies, that is the divine nature of Jesus Christ. In order for God to save mankind, Christ had to put on flesh enabling God to dwell amongst men. The Lord had to incarnate as man in order to save man, for the glory of God by itself would of consumed the very people He was trying to preserve. For as the Bible says, “…our God is a consuming fire.” (Hebrews 12:29). Even Moses when he came down from the mountain had such a bright countenance that the congregation made him put a veil over his face until after he was done speaking with them. Also during their wanderings in the wilderness the children of Israel were not allowed into the tabernacle which housed the ark of the covenant. Going further in Exodus 39:34 we see that the covering of the tabernacle was made from ram’s skins and badger’s skins, just as Christ would take the skin of a human for His incarnation. For Christ being likened to the tabernacle put on flesh in order to tabernacle among us.

Now in Leviticus 21:10 the Bible lists several prohibitions concerning the office of high priest, that is certain things the high priest is forbidden to do. One such restriction was that the high priest was never to rend or tear his clothing. An example of a priest forsaking the law not to rend his clothes is found in the Gospels where Jesus stands on trial before the high priest Caiaphas. The high priest asked Jesus if He were in fact the Son of God and Jesus replied, I AM. After this the Bible says that, “the high priest rent his clothes, saying, He hath spoken blasphemy.” (Matthew 26:65). By tearing his clothes the high priest transgressed the commandment found in Leviticus, and by this action Caiaphas forfeited his office as high priest. For just as the high priest tore his clothes which sacrificed his priesthood as witnessed by a few, so also was the flesh of Jesus torn making Christ pay the ultimate sacrifice for many.

With the flesh of Jesus being torn by His crucifixion and then the veil of the temple being torn from top to bottom at the very moment of Christ’s death, would make these two events signs which signified the end of the Old Covenant and signaled the ushering in of the New Covenant. Through the work of salvation which Christ accomplished we have been granted to step behind the veil and participate in the life giving communion of the Holy Spirit and have been reconciled unto God the Father. For as it is written in 1 Timothy 2:5 “For there is one God, and one mediator between God and men, the man Christ Jesus.” So by the mystery of reconciliation Christ has brought us before the Father, and through the tearing of his flesh Jesus has given His life as a ransom for many. As the beloved Apostle John wrote, “Herein is love, not that we loved God, but that he loved us, and sent his Son to be the propitiation for our sins.” (1 John 4:10). In other words just as the high priest went behind the veil on the day of atonement to reconcile the sins of the nation, so too has Christ atoned for the sins of the world and removed the veil granting the believer reconciliation to the Father.