The geographical area known as Central Asia, lies in a region of Asia who’s territories span from the Caspian Sea to the west to China in the east, and from Iran in the south to Russia in the north. The names of these countries belonging to this part of the world include: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan along with Afghanistan, which is considered by some to also be a part of Central Asia. Historically, Central Asia was a part of the trading routs connected to the famous Silk Road. For due to it’s location, Central Asia became the crossroads of commerce and enterprise between Europe and Asia in the centuries past. In pre-Islamic and early Islamic times, the racial demographics of Central Asia were comprised mostly of Persian and Turkic stock, with both Iranian and Turkish languages spoken. In the realm of religion (prior to the introduction of Islam) the three main faiths of Central Asia were Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, and Manichaeism. However, as we shall see, Islam would become the dominant religion of the region in the early part of the 8th century as a result of the Arab conquest of Central Asia. For after the death of Mohammad in 632 AD, his successors would go on to spread the religion of Islam all the way from the Arabian Peninsula into North Africa in the west and into Iran in the east, to an area known as Khorasan. But before the Islamic Caliphate could enter Central Asia, they had to go through Iran, which at this time was ruled by the Persian Sasanian Empire.
The Sasanian Empire, also known as the Neo-Persian Empire, was founded in the year 224 AD by Ardashir I, who named the dynasty as Sasanian in honor of his grandfather, Sasan, and which was also the name of his tribe. The house of Sasan ruled for over four hundred years, until it was overthrown by the Arabs in 651 AD, making it the longest enduring dynasty of all the Persian dynasties. Preceded by the Parthian Empire, the Sasanian Empire would go on to reestablish Persian authority in the region right next to its arch-enemy, the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantines and the Sasanids strove against each other in a series of wars, until the year 628 AD, which marked the final conflict between the two powers. At the end of the fighting, both sides found themselves exhausted with much human life lost and a great amount of material resources wasted. As a consequence of this vulnerability, the Islamic Rashidun Caliphate swiftly conquered the whole of the Sasanid Empire, as well as capturing Byzantine territories in the Levant, the Caucasus, Egypt, and North Africa. In 661 AD the Islamic Umayyad Dynasty came to power and captured even more territory, all the way to the Indus River. It was at this time that the Umayyads fixed their eyes on Central Asia as a potential prize for further expansion.
Now out of all the great military generals that the Umayyad Dynasty produced, none was more honorable than Qutayba ibn Muslim al Baahili. For Qutayba accomplished something that no other Arab chief before him had ever dared to do. And this successful military achievement made by Qutayba was none other than the invasion of Central Asia, “The Land of the Turks.” However, the Arab conquest of Central Asia was not easy, for the Turkic peoples of the steppes fought down to the death against their Arab invaders. The Arabs were indeed impressed with the strength and fighting abilities of the Turks. But in spite of the skills of their worthy opponents, the Arabs were tenacious and with continued attacks over a long period of time, did the Arabs eventually wear down the defenses of the the Turks and finally achieved their goal of conquering the peoples and territories of Central Asia. In addition to the capture of the Turkish areas, in 715 AD Qutayba also conquered the Chinese territories of the steppes and even sent diplomats to the Chinese king Yon Chong to offer him the opportunity to convert to Islam. Later, after some infighting in the Caliphate, Qutayba would eventually be killed by his own men. Upon hearing the news of Qutayba’s death did the Turks rejoice, for it was this man who overpowered the Turks and who also humiliated the Emperors of China.
As devastating as the Arab conquest was for the people of Central Asia, a glimmer of hope would indeed arise from the ashes of their Arabic defeat. For in just a few decades after the war with the Arabs, did Central Asia experience a Golden Age. Not only would the people of the steppes benefit materially from the trade routs connected to the Silk Road, but a blossoming of high intellectual thought and culture would exalt Central Asia onto the world stage as a leading power in the various disciplines of the arts and sciences. For during the time period between 800 and 1100 AD, did the various nations of Central Asia produce many significant people who would go down in history as great mathematicians, astronomers, poets, and architects. As part of the greater Islamic Golden Age, Central Asia flourished in wealth and wisdom alongside her Arab neighbors in the Middle East. Just as Baghdad produced the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid, who founded the House of Wisdom in the late 8th century, so too did Uzbekistan bless the Islamic Golden Age with the mathematician and polymath Mohammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi, who was appointed the astronomer and head of the library of the House of Wisdom in Baghdad in 820 AD.
Al-Khwarizmi’s contributions to the study of mathematics is legendary. He impressively made many accomplishments in the fields of trigonometry, and also established a particular way to solve linear and quadratic equations, which led to the invention of algebra. For both the mathematical terms algebra and algorithm, would derive their names from al-Khwarizmi, the man who expanded on this particular field of scientific knowledge. In addition to math al-Khwarizmi also studied geography, astronomy, and cartography making huge intellectual contributions towards the advancement of these disciplines. Al-Khwarizmi would go on to assist the caliph al-Ma’mun in a project to determine the circumference of the earth. He was also instrumental in making a map of the world, which he did while overseeing a team of seventy other geographers. Al-Khwarizmi’s discoveries not only benefited the Muslim world, but also made a great impact in the countries of Europe. For in the 12th century his works spread throughout Europe, assisted by the translations of his studies into Latin.
Now just as all good things must come to an end, so too did this melting pot of ideas, religions, and industry go the way of the dodo. A key factor which contributed to this decline, was the heightening of border closures along the trade routs that ran through Central Asia. This led many merchants to seek out alternative trade routs, bypassing the steppes all together. As a result of this weakened economy the wonderful traditions of the arts and sciences, which had been built up over a number of years in Central Asia, suffered tremendously. It has also been speculated that an overemphasis on religion, namely Islam, resulted in a loss of the high culture and the intellectual achievements made at the height of Central Asia’s renaissance.
Apart from the the Arab conquest of Central Asia which occurred in the early 8th century, the Mongols would also go on to conquer Central Asia in the early 13th century. Also in the 14th century much of Central Asia was conquered by Tamerlane. Later in the 19th century, the Russian Empire along with the Qing dynasty of China, were able to expand into the region and capture much of it’s territories. In the 20th century after the Russian Revolution of 1917, the Soviet Union was able to seize control of most of Central Asia. In the post-Soviet era, beginning in 1991, other world powers have taken an interest in Central Asia in the hopes of building positive relationships. Turkey has reached out in order to build links between the western and eastern Turks, and Iran has also successfully worked with the various governments of Central Asia in order to build stronger ties. And although it is debatable if Afghanistan is a part of Central Asia, the fact remains that Afghanistan is the only country in the area which no foreign power has ever been able to conquer, not even by the most powerful superpower in the world: The United States of America. For as history informs us, “Afghanistan is the graveyard of empires.”
References:
Axworthy, M. Empire of the Mind: A History of Iran. (New York, NY: Basic Books Inc., 2008).
Daniel, E. The History of Iran. (Westport, Connecticut: The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations, 2001).
Glubb, S.J, A Short History of the Arab Peoples. (New York, NY: Barnes & Noble Books, 1995).
Starr, S.F. Lost Enlightenment: Central Asia’s Golden Age from the Arab Conquest to Tamerlane. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013).